NEXT GENERATION VOICE INFRASTRUCTURE :
} The transport and switching of voice will be performed in the packet domain-a VoIP .The infrastructure efficiencies that can be achieved with VoIP.
} Computing platforms physically separate from the switching systems-known as the softswitch-will provide the intelligence powering voice services
REFERENCES :
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSM"
http://www.gsmworld.com/newsroom/market-data/market_data_summary.htm.
This paper deals with the “nanological treatment” in electronic engineering. Nanotechnology is the use of very small particles of material either by themselves or by their manipulation to create new large scale materials. The size of the particles, though, is very important because at the length scale of the nanometer, 10-9m, the properties of the material actually become affected. Nanotechnology is not a new science and it is not a new technology. It is rather an extension of the sciences and technologies that have already been in development for many years and it is the logical progression of the work that has been done to examine the nature of our world at an ever smaller scale.
The field of electronics will inevitably be a beneficiary of this nanotechnology; in fact it already is in the fields of nanotransistors, IC’s,electronic, gadgets. Today each day 3 to 4 Nano products are developed. The domain is from microelectronics to nanoelectronics.Thus far it has made a huge impact over the field of medicine, telecommunication and energy sector.
Ø The branch of engineering that deals with things smaller than 100 nanometers (especially with the manipulation of individual molecules).
Ø Nanotechnology, shortened to "nanotech", is the study of the controlling of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology deals with structures of the size 100 nanometers or smaller in at least one dimension, and involves developing materials or devices within that size.
Ø The science and technology of creating nanoparticles and of manufacturing machines which have sizes within the range of .1 to 100 nanometres.
Ø Incorporates scientific advances in protein synthesis, molecular engineering and micro-computing. It is creating a set of tools and processes that will enable the synthesis of materials and structures at the atomic level.
Ø Unusual physical, chemical, and biological properties can emerge in materials at the nanoscale. These properties may differ in important ways from the properties of bulk materials and single atoms or molecules.
Ø The science and technology of building electronic circuits and devices from single atoms and molecules.
The classic speech from Feynman from 1959 in which he said that the basic principles of the physics do not contradict the ability of moving atoms and molecules is often seen as starting point of nanotechnology.
Feynman described a process by which the ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules might be developed, using one set of precise tools to build and operate another proportionally smaller set, so on down to the needed scale.
Nanotechnology and nanoscience got started in the early 1980s with two major developments; the birth of cluster science and the invention of the scanning tunneling microscope (STM).
The STM is based on the concept of quantum tunneling. When a conducting tip is brought very near to the surface to be examined, a bias (voltage difference) applied between the two can allow electrons to tunnel through the vacuum between them. The resulting tunneling current is a function of tip position, applied voltage, and the local density of states (LDOS) of the sample. Information is acquired by monitoring the current as the tip's position scans across the surface, and is usually displayed in image form.
The resolution of an image is limited by the radius of curvature of the scanning tip of the STM. Additionally, image artifacts can occur if the tip has two tips at the end rather than a single atom; this leads to “double-tip imaging,” a situation in which both tips contribute to the tunneling.
Schematic view of an STM
Cluster science emerged as a separate direction of research in the 1980s, although first reports of cluster species date back already to the 1940s One purpose of the research was to study the gradual development of collective phenomena which characterize a bulk solid. These are for example the color of a body, its electrical conductivity, its ability to absorb or reflect light, and magnetic phenomena such as Ferro-, Ferri-, or anti ferromagnetism. These are typical collective phenomena which only develop in an aggregate of a large number of atoms.
Typical carbon-carbon bond lengths, or the spacing between these atoms in a molecule, are in the range 0.12-0.15 nm, and a DNA double-helix has a diameter around 2 nm. On the other hand, the smallest cellular life forms, the bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma, are around 200 nm in length.
A number of physical phenomena become pronounced as the size of the system decreases. These include statistical mechanical effects, as well as quantum mechanical effects, for example the “quantum size effect” where the electronic properties of solids are altered with great reductions in particle size. This effect does not come into play by going from macro to micro dimensions. However, it becomes dominant when the nanometer size range is reached. Additionally, a number of physical (mechanical, electrical, optical, etc.) properties change when compared to macroscopic systems.
Two main approaches are used in nanotechnology. In the "bottom-up" approach, materials and devices are built from molecular components which assemble themselves chemically by principles of molecular recognition. In the "top-down" approach, nano-objects are constructed from larger entities without atomic-level control.
Interface and Colloid Science, coupled with a new generation of analytical tools such as the atomic force microscope (AFM), and the scanning tunneling microscope (STM). Combined with refined processes such as electron beam lithography and molecular epitaxy, these instruments allow the deliberate manipulation of nanostructures, and lead to the observation of novel phenomena.
